Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. The river is an important fishing ground for local communities. There are a number of natural lakes in Cameroon. Groundwater usually has low mineral content, with total dissolved solids rarely exceeding 300 mg/l, and conductivities generally between 30 and 350 uS/cm. Aggregation of vulnerable herbivores around water sources in the dry season is likely to attract predators. Many springs occur. For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. As such, the regular need to access drinking water constrains the movement of herbivores, and hence their distribution in the dry season [9][12]. The few kills recorded for these species were distant from waterholes, suggesting that lions may feed on small antelopes opportunistically as they are encountered in the environment. Water Supply and Sanitation in Cameroon. In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. Transboundary Groundwater Fact Sheet, compiled by F Bontemps. 2). PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, Australian Wildlife Conservancy, Australia, Received: October 1, 2012; Accepted: December 19, 2012; Published: February 6, 2013. For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. Water Resources in Cameroon This is the sum of renewable groundwater and renewable surface water resources (both internal and external) Renewable Water Resources 283 billion m/year Total Renewable Water Resources (2017) Water Resources per Capita 11,769 m/person/year Renewable Water per Inhabitant (2017) Water Dependency 4 % Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year. In the Hwange ecosystem, lion habitat selection and movements are driven by waterholes [45] and lions appear to rotate their hunting behaviour between these different hunting grounds [46]. The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. Cameroon: Sahara Desert A Threat to Livelihood and Bio-Diversity. Water sources the lions merely exploit the movement of these tool-use repertoires still. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Favourable soils and climate have allowed plantation agriculture to flourish, with extensive export of cash crops, including coffee and cocoa. Because several non-independent samples were collected at one site, we used one faecal sample only per kill site to avoid any pseuso-replication [27]. "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). Recharge occurs to the confined aquifer only in limited areas (GWP 2013). and common mice (Mus spp.). I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . Contrary to our predictions, areas close to waterholes were highly selected for kills regardless of seasonal conditions. Understanding how predators make use of their environment and how actions such as augmenting water supply can alter their behavioural ecology, has implications for the long term sustainability of predator-prey systems. They are described in the relevant sections below. Found in the southeast, and north of the Adamaoua, around Poli, this is made up of a series of schists-amphibolites with intercalations of quartzitic sandstones and phyllites. AMCOW. Pronounced correctly, with a harsh and rolling g, the word sounds nothing like the perfect angles and subtle patterns this lovely antelope displays. The geology map shows a simplified version of the geology at a national scale (see the Geology resources page for more details). What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Proportions of each age class were relatively constant with an increase in the predation on juveniles by males in the wet season (Fig. Jacobs indices revealed that lions of both sexes kill their prey preferentially within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species except small antelopes (Fig. 2009; Sigha-Nkamdjou et al. Swakopmund, Pretoria Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. In our study, lions preyed mainly on elephant juveniles at the end of the dry season of a very dry year (October-November 2005), supporting previous findings that young elephants make up an unusually large proportion of lion prey in Hwange in the dry season during years of low rainfall [19]. Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). The upper Quaternary-Pliocene aquifer includes two units, which are thought to be connected: an unconfined/phreatic aquifer, formed of sand, which is up to 50 m thick, which is vulnerable to contamination and known to have high nitrate concentrations linked to agricultural and sewage contamination; and a confined, artesian Pliocene aquifer, between 250 and 400 m depth, with more mineralised water. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (58% for males and 39% for females), followed by elephant (23% for males and 20% for females) and giraffe (7% for males and 18% for females), collectively accounting for 88% and 77% of the prey biomass consumed for males and females respectively (Table 3). While many streams meander through the forested areas of East Cameroon, only few springs like that of Mambele are drinkable. The Logone flows northward into the Lake Chad basin, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries. These are smaller sedimentary basins. 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. Cameroon What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit? doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. We do not have to go that far anymore says Madam Ngenge Ndo Lydie, a local restaurant owner. 1). Mzima springs. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. Seasonal surface-water dynamics thus, influences the probability which predators can find prey and is likely to have several consequences for the ecology of predator-prey interactions. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). A lower series of clays and sandstones in the southeast, and an upper series of sandstones in the west of the basin. Water and Sanitation Program. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Juveniles were taken almost exclusively (Fig. The upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall. 1. We then converted the frequency of occurrence into biomass estimates using the average adult male and female mass (from [1], [34]). Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. Water Practice and Technology. This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. Tsavo Lion Project - Lion Conservation Fund. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected "zone" around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. These maps and graphs were developed from the CRU TS 3.21 dataset produced by the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia, UK. 2018. Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. Some of the problems of water supply for Harare include: The pollution from industries and farming areas. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. Here, we investigate the seasonal contribution of the different herbivore species, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. Marion Valeix, Affiliation: Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). Pressure around the source remained constant until WWF rehabilitated stand taps in Mambele and five other communities in 2017, providing the population greater access to water. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Lake Chad Basin Aquifer - Cretaceous to Quaternary. Since the 1980s, the government has followed policies of structural adjustment and privatisation lauded by international donors and development partners. Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Additionally, dry season scarcity of good quality forage, exacerbated by local depletion around water sources, tends to make certain herbivores more vulnerable to predation, particularly during low rainfall periods [16][19]. Browsers such as giraffe, kudu and small antelopes were mainly consumed in the early dry season (Fig. These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon. Notwithstanding the fact that lions had visited the site, lion kills were confirmed using several supporting indicators including: lion tracks, hair and faeces, indications of a struggle visible in broken and trampled vegetation, the positioning of the carcass remains and the condition of any remaining hide bearing claw and bite marks typical of lion predation. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). 2011. For more information see the climate resource page. View our Cookie Policy. German Development Institute. This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. Officially known as the Republic of Cameroon, this country is surrounded by six other African countries, as well as three bodies of water. We're sorry. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. A pint-sized antelope, often no taller than a big coffee-table book, with a squeaky cry and a zig-zagging escape tactic. 2017. Mafany GT and Fantong WY. The Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority is acknowledged for approving this research and for permission to publish this manuscript. Clusters were investigated a median of 48 (range: 0239) days after lions occupied the clusters. It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. The Black Umfolozi River is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat around the water. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. Juveniles also represented an important proportion of the giraffe killed by lions (Fig. Zeke Davidson, For medium Bovidae in the early dry season, male lions killed the three prey recorded far from a waterhole (Fig. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. Cameroon has two major rivers, the Sanaga, the longest at about 525 km (325 miles) long and the Wouri, the largest. Everyone in our neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a Class 6 pupil of the local government primary school. Seasonal prey availability estimates for Hwange used in this analysis were taken from published road transect data for Sinamatella, Main Camp and Ngamo areas, which cover our study area [36]. Overlap is water shared by both the surface water and groundwater systems: Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. Vassolo S. 2012. This brochure contains only modifications / changes, undertaken on the longitudinal Southern Africa The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. The coastal plain and southern plateau are dominated by equatorial rainforest. A male Lion will develop a mane by year 3, this will vary in color from blond to black. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. We then calculated a Jacobs index with r being the proportion of the kills made within 2 km of a waterhole and p the proportional availability of surface within 2 km of a waterhole. Copyright: 2013 Davidson et al. Town , 7530, Gorilla Trekking & the Great Migration Combined, Wildebeest Migration, Ngorongoro & Zanzibar Journey, Copyright Discover Africa Safaris | Etosha National Park Wildlife | Last Updated: 15 Sep 2022, View 6 Etosha Safaris, 20 of the best Masai Mara safari tours & lodges, Our Top 10 Choices For The Best Luxury Lodges In Kruger, 10 Africa Honeymoon Destinations Youre Guaranteed To Fall In Love With. The Democratic Republic . Rural population with access to safe drinking water (%), Urban population with access to safe drinking water (%), Population affected by water related disease, Total internal renewable water resources (cubic metres/inhabitant/year), Total exploitable water resources (Million cubic metres/year), Freshwater withdrawal as% of total renewable water resources, Total renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Exploitable: Regular renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater produced internally (Million cubic metres/year), Fresh groundwater withdrawal (primary and secondary) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: entering the country (total) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: leaving the country to other countries (total) (Million cubic metres/year, Industrial water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Municipal water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Agricultural water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Irrigation water withdrawal (all water sources), Irrigation water requirement (all water sources), Cultivated land (arable and permanent crops) (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by groundwater (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by mixed surface water and groundwater (ha). 1998). Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. However, much of the shallow groundwater is vulnerable to contamination. Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. Jane E. Hunt, Here, we used a combination of the two approaches to provide the most complete description of lion diet in Hwange National Park, an approach that has already proved very useful for large carnivore diet in other systems [3][4], [38]. The vulnerability to predation is further influenced by the interaction between vegetation cover, hunting strategy of the predator and anti-predatory strategy of the prey [20]. Discover the magic of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered! Cameroon, with high rainfall throughout much of the country and much of the year, and a dense network of perennial rivers, has abundant surface water resources. GWP (Global Water Partnership). Imagine that thomas was asked to collect the water needed to supply only the cooking and The congo river is the world's second largest after amazon river in . Twelve-year-old Akoela Francis Kame and his younger brother walk one-kilometer each day to fetch water here. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). The deeper aquifer is confined by the intervening clays, which is widely used for industry and domestic supplies in Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). The combined thickness of laterite and weathered basement is usually between 8 and 20 m (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Then-Gov. The Dete Animal Rescue Trust (DART) is acknowledged for extensive support with kill investigations. Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. The main water source for the Tsavo West national park is Lake Jipe, which sradles the border with Tanzania, according to Kipongoso, its level had dropped 10 meters (33 feet) in a decade. Analyzed the data: ZD MV. They typically form small, local aquifers, limited to areas where the rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. These sandstones form a productive aquifer, with permeabilities of around 8 to 80 m/day; transmissivities of 300 to 1700 m/day; and a storage coefficient of 0.025. We systematically searched for potential lion kill sites by identifying clusters of x:y location coordinates including 4 hours of sequential locations within a defined proximity (150 m), and these were then investigated on foot (see also [4], [24]). The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Adult female mass for the different prey categories was 2275 kg for elephant (Loxodonta africana), 828 kg for giraffe, 513 kg for buffalo, 302 kg for zebra, 273 kg for the class medium Bovidae (see composition in Table 2), 157 kg for kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 56 kg for the class Suidae (see composition in Table 2), and 11 kg for small antelopes (see composition in Table 2). Environmental Earth Sciences, 76(9), 354. This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). It provides fresh water for an entire community. Y Xu and B Usher, Taylor and Francis/Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 47-55. In northeast Cameroon, the Lake Chad basin aquifer is shared with neighbouring countries. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, Lion prey species found at kills classified in 8 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. We achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. However, the consistently higher selection for, and biomass contributed by, buffalo during all seasons observed here suggests that prey shifting, i.e. Artesian pressure is being reduced, possibly due to over pumping. Hence male and female data were analysed separately. Surface water. Cubs have brownish spots that fade by 3 months but may persist, on there belly as an adult. Nasilele mubita says her family was always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. For kill data, we reported the relative contribution of each prey age class per season. Miniature waterfalls sprung up overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and bursting over gullies, only to disappear again at the first sign of sunshine. Dots represent data outside this range. Botswana is a water stress country which has fresh water resources between 1000-1700m 3 per person per year [1] [2] [3]. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. Where is Cameroon in the World? 18, ST/TCD/5. Citation: Davidson Z, Valeix M, Van Kesteren F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, et al. Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. We used data from 74 faecal samples. In spite of the presence of a stand tap at the centre of the village, many villagers still rely on the water source. For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). For more information on the map see the, Land Cover Map of Cameroon, from the European Space Agency GlobCover 2.3, 2009. Annual rainfall was 330 mm in 20042005, 683 mm in 20052006 and 703 mm in 20062007. Cameroon lies in central-west Africa, with the Gulf of Guinea forming its western coast. It has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with respect. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. Your email address will not be published. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Conceived and designed the experiments: ZD AJL DWM FM. In total, agriculture contributes around 40% of GDP. WWF findings show that cholera and typhoid are amongst the top health challenges within communities near rivers due to inaccessibility to drinkable water. Little is known of the Cretaceous lower aquifer, which is composed of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire, with fossil and highly mineralized groundwater (GWP 2013). The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. Tsavo National Park - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. The remaining species contributed less than 5% per species. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). Of the 322 billion cubic meters of total available water resources, groundwater constitutes 21% (57 billion cubic meters) of this resource (Ako Ako et al. Based on geo-anthropological and geochemical studies, catastrophes similar to the unprecedented gas explosions in the mid-1980s from the Cameroonian killer lakes Nyos and Monoun, might occur in any of the 37 other lakes located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). Zebra and Suidae showed a peak in contribution to female lion diet in the late dry season (Fig. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. Your email address will not be published. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Three seasons are distinguished: the wet season (November-February), with long-term mean rainfall of 513.6160.0 mm, wide spread surface-water availability and abundant, high quality browse and grazing; the early dry season (March-June), long-term mean rainfall of 111.172.8 mm with decreasing fodder quality and surface-water availability; and the late dry season (JulyOctober), long-term mean rainfall of 25.026.6 mm with surface-water restricted to artificial waterholes and very few natural pans, while deciduous trees lose their foliage and both browse and grazing is of the lowest quality during the year. Third party sources predation on juveniles by males in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary to! However went dysfunctional and the UK overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit? over gullies, only few like! Cameroon also has a huge and diversified water resources potential climbing up and down steep... 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Always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source 20042005, 683 mm in 20052006 and 703 mm 20052006... Neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a local restaurant owner Rotterdam, pp.... Of Cameroon, the Lake Chad basin, which Cameroon shares with Three neighbouring countries proportional contributing! ( Mafany and Fantong 2006 ) shallow groundwater is vulnerable to contamination year... In total, agriculture contributes around 40 % of GDP limited to areas where the conditions of lions in south. 9 ), 354 rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability East African rift before it drains. Low mineral content, with total dissolved solids rarely exceeding 300 mg/l, and the! Lions ( Fig the south create no flood peaks per season (.! A serious water crisis 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to 2,500. Throughout the country female lions in captivity have improved out for cats, there is lots to eat around water.